mamluk sultanate interactions with the environment

They were successful in combat, beating them at the Battle of Ain Jalut and the Battle of Homs. [153], Lesser-ranked Mamluk emirs viewed the sultan more as a peer whom they entrusted with ultimate authority and as a benefactor whom they expected would guarantee their salaries and monopoly on the military. A state ruled by slave soldiers of predominantly Turkish, and later Circassian, origin from 1250 to 1517. [37] An-Nasir Yusuf proceeded to besiege al-Mughith and the Bahriyyah at al-Karak, but the growing threat of a Mongol invasion of Syria ultimately led to a reconciliation between an-Nasir Yusuf and al-Mughith, and Baybars's defection to the former. The Dar Al-Islam was on its heels, the Islamic Golden Age at its end. [122] Thus, the early Mamluk embrace of Sunni Islam also stemmed from the pursuit of a moral unity within their realm based on the majority views of its subjects. [72] Initially, an-Nasir Muhammad left most of his father's mamluks undisturbed, but in 1311 and 1316, he imprisoned and executed most of them, and again redistributed emirates to his own mamluks. Commercial International Bank (CIB) Industrial Development Bank of Egypt. [164] In addition, an emir of one hundred could be assigned one thousand mounted troops during battle. [110] The continuing invasions of Syria by Mongol armies led to further waves of Syrian immigrants, including scholars and artisans, to Egypt. [16] Most of the mamluks in the Ayyubids' service were ethnic Kipchak Turks from Central Asia, who, upon entering service, were converted to Sunni Islam and taught Arabic. Natural Resource Management in Syrian Villages. Jamdariyyah) and Bahri (pl. After so many other cities were destroyed by the Mongols, Cairo became possibly the greatest city in Afro-Eurasia by the end of the 13th century. [15] Each Ayyubid sultan and high-ranking emir had a private mamluk corps. Rather, it caused disruption of agricultural activities, destruction of crops and economic loss. Indian merchants brought textiles, beads, gold, silver, metal good, and religious objects to these regions. [78] By January 1342, however, Qawsun and Kujuk were toppled, and the latter's half-brother, an-Nasir Ahmad of al-Karak, was declared sultan. Mamluk military regiments began sprouting in Egypt around the 9th century, under the command of various Sultans; their success in warfare only made them more popular in the years to come. It was ruled by a military caste of mamluks (manumitted slave soldiers) headed by the sultan. [76], To legitimize their rule, the Mamluks presented themselves as the defenders of Islam, and, beginning with Baybars, sought the confirmation of their executive authority from a caliph. [155] The qaranis occasionally constituted a hostile faction to a sultan, such as in the case of Sultan as-Salih Ayyub and the Qalawuni successors of an-Nasir Muhammad. [114] Among the Bahri sultans and emirs, there existed a degree of pride of their Kipchak Turkish roots,[116] and their non-Kipchak usurpers such as sultans Kitbuqa, Baybars II and Lajin were often de-legitimized in the Bahri-era sources for their non-Kipchak origins. In 1260, after a period of confusion following the death of the last Ayyubid, a Qipchaq Turk called Baybars became Sultan. [200], In the art of manuscript decoration, the Qur'an was the book most commonly produced with a high degree of artistic elaboration. [171][183] Agricultural products were the main exports of Mamluk Egypt, Syria and Palestine. as being heretical by the Sunni establishment patronized by the Mamluks. [140], Sultans Baybars and Qalawun, and the Syrian viceroys of an-Nasir Muhammad during his first two reigns, emirs Salar and Baybars II, were averse to granting Bedouin sheikhs iqtaat, and when they did, the iqtaat were of low quality. The 'Isa Ibn Hasan al-Hajjan tribe became powerful in the country after being assigned massive iqtaat. Test your knowledge with gamified quizzes. Initially, the Salihiyyah welcomed Turanshah's succession, with many greeting him and requesting confirmation of their administrative posts and iqta assignments at his arrival to the Egyptian frontier. [20] Opposition among the Salihiyyah to as-Salih rose when the latter ordered the assassination of his brother Abu Bakr al-Adil in 1249, a task that affronted many of the Salihiyyah and by whom was rejected; four of the Salihiyyah ultimately agreed to execute the controversial operation. Tensions between the Mamluks and Ayyubid leadership came to a head during the Seventh Crusade, an attack on Damietta orchestrated by French King Louis IX. [101] While the Mamluks were able to force the Anatolian beyliks to generally submit to their hegemony in the region, Mamluk authority in Upper Egypt was largely relegated to the emirs of the Hawwara tribe. [19] While historian Stephen Humphreys asserts that the Salihiyyah's increasing dominance of the state did not personally threaten as-Salih due to their fidelity to him, Clifford believes that the Salihiyyah developed an autonomy within the state that fell short of such loyalty. [33] The Syrian mamluks were led by their patron Jamal ad-Din Aydughdi and were assigned most of the iqta of Aktay and his allies. This work is made available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license (CC-BY). The Ilkhanate was poised to tread into a new continent: Africa. [61] Following the dtente with the Ilkhanate after 1280, Qalawun launched a wide arrest campaign to eliminate internal dissent, imprisoning dozens of high-ranking emirs in Egypt and Syria. Agricultural Bank of Egypt. From their Islamic masters, the Mamluks learned command and combat strategy, science, mathematics, art, law, and administration. [201] One of the stylistic features that distinguished Mamluk manuscript decoration was the presence of gilded foliate scrollwork over pastel-coloured backgrounds set within wide margins. [123] While the Mamluks patronized the Sunni ulama through appointments to government office, they patronized the Sufis by funding zawiyas (Sufi lodges). Drought's effects on the population slowed the Ottoman Empire's expansion in the 16th century. Slave-soldiers who served the Islamic dynasties during the Medieval Era; meaning "one who is owned". Mosque lamps had a bulbous body with a wide flaring neck at the top. Compared to the likes of the American Slave Trade, Mamluks were treated well and even granted freedom after years of initial servitude, though they were expected to keep loyal to their former masters. [46], Baybars attempted to institute dynastic rule by assigning his four-year-old son al-Said Barakah as co-sultan, thereby ending the Mamluk tradition of electing a leader, but this effort was ultimately unsuccessful, at least for his Zahirid household; successful rulership became highly dependent on Baybars' personal qualities[clarification needed]. Late mamluk minarets, for example, most typically had an octagonal shaft for the first tier, a round shaft on the second, and a lantern structure with finial on the third level. [63] Its location facing as-Salih's tomb was meant demonstrate Qalawun's lasting connection to his master and to honor the Salihiyyah. [67] In 1291, Khalil captured Acre, the last major Crusader fortress in Palestine and thus Mamluk rule extended across the entirety of Syria. Moreover, the major industries of sugar and textile production were also dependent on agricultural products, namely sugar cane and cotton, respectively. [53] This brought the fortress of Qasr Ibrim under Mamluk jurisdiction. Due to the Mamluk power, they were able to shield and protect the western Islamic world from the threat of the Mongols. "Slave-soldiers" who served the Islamic dynasties during the Medieval Era, meaning "one who is owned.". iii DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108557382 Publisher: Cambridge University Press Print publication year: 2022 Access options [80] This unorthodox move, together with his seclusive and frivolous behavior and his execution of loyal partisans, ended with Ahmad's deposition and replacement by his half-brother as-Salih Ismail in June 1342. Create flashcards in notes completely automatically. [103] Syria passed into Ottoman possession,[104] and the Ottomans were welcomed in many places as deliverance from the Mamluks. That year, he managed to dispatch Aktay to Upper Egypt to suppress an Arab uprising. She chose Aybak, a Mamluk commander. [139] Under the third reign of an-Nasir Muhammad in particular, the Bedouin tribes, particularly those of Syria, such as the Al Fadl, were strengthened and integrated into the economy as well. [110], Although Arabic was used as the administrative language of the sultanate, a variety of Kipchak Turkic, namely the Mamluk-Kipchak language was the spoken language of the Mamluk ruling elite. [110] On the other end of the spectrum of Sunni religious expression were the teachings of the Hanbali scholar Ibn Taymiyyah, which emphasized stringent moral rigor based on literal interpretations of the Qur'an and the Sunnah, and a deep hostility to the aspects of mysticism and popular religious innovations promoted by the various Sufi orders. [185] Centralization over Syria and Palestine was also more complicated than in Egypt due to the diversity of those regions' geography and the frequent invasions of the Syro-Palestinian territories. Tall, increasingly vertical building meant to dominate city streets within tightening city walls. Caliphs, on the other hand, played a more spiritually significant role. 76-80 Seljuk Empire Mamluk Sultanate Delhi Sultanate Geographic Location and Dates they maintained powe r 11 century, Middle east North Africa 1250-1517 South Asia Social Social classes & social hierarchy Who has power in society? [177] However, this led to a situation where the iqta holders neglected the administrative oversight, maintenance and infrastructure of their iqtaat, while concentrating solely on collecting revenues, thereby resulting in less productivity of the iqtaat. [100], Barsbay pursued an economic policy of establishing state monopolies over the lucrative trade with Europe, particularly regarding spices, to the chagrin of the civilian merchants of the sultanate. [89][92], Barquq's accession had been made possible by the support of Yalbugha's mamluks, whose subsequent rise to power also made Barquq's position vulnerable. [195] Mediterranean trade was dominated by spices, such as pepper, muscat nuts and flowers, cloves and cinnamon, as well as medicinal drugs and indigo. Mamluk authority across the empire eroded under his successors due to foreign invasions, tribal rebellions, and natural disasters, and the state entered into a long period of financial distress. Environment & Geography; Geography of the Middle East. On 24 August 1516, at the Battle of Marj Dabiq, al-Ghawri was killed. From the Medieval to the Early Modern Period, the Mamluks reigned during a transformative era in Dar Al-Islam as the Islamic Caliphates fell and new kinds of states arose, even states governed by former slaves. Although not in the same form as under the Sultanate, the Ottoman Empire retained the Mamluks as an Egyptian ruling class and the Mamluks and the Burji family succeeded in regaining much of their influence, but remained vassals of the Ottomans. [98] The emirs could not usurp the throne themselves, however, and had Caliph al-Musta'in installed; the caliph had the support of the non-Circassian mamluks and legitimacy with the local population. [136] The Syriac Christians also experienced a significant decline in Syria due to intra-communal disputes over patriarchal succession and the destruction of churches by the Timurids or local Kurdish tribes. [179] By 1343, the practice was common and by 1347, the sale of iqta'at became taxed. [101] Barsbay also undertook efforts to better protect the caravan routes to the Hejaz from Bedouin raids and the Egyptian Mediterranean coast from Catalan and Genoese piracy. [72] He then assigned emirates to over thirty of his own mamluks. The Mamluk sultans are usually divided into two dynasties, the Bahris (1250-1382), chiefly Turks and Mongols, and the Burjis (1382-1517), chiefly Circassians who were chosen from the garrison of Cairo. Empire.) Instead, many entered into mercantile, scholastic or other civilian careers. License & Copyright Based on Wikipedia content that has been reviewed, edited, and republished. On 27 February, Turanshah, as new sultan, arrived in Egypt from Hasankeyf, where he had been Emir of Hisn Kayfa since AH 636 (1238/1239 CE), and went straight to al-Mansurah to lead the Egyptian army. The rumor, accentuated by the execution of civilian notables who evacuated Damietta, provoked a mutiny by the garrison of his camp in al-Mansurah, which included numerous Salihi mamluks. [26][27] The Bahriyyah compelled Aybak to share power with al-Ashraf Musa, a grandson of Sultan al-Kamil. [108] After Muhammad Ali defeated the Mamluks and Bedouin, the Bedouin went on a destructive rampage against the Egyptian fellahin peasantry, destroying and looting crops and massacred 200 townsmen in Belbeis in Al-Sharqiya province and also rampaging through al-Qaliubiyya province. [48] Baybars' strategy regarding the Crusader fortresses along the Syrian coast was not to capture and utilize the fortresses, but to destroy them and thus prevent their potential future use by new waves of Crusaders. The Mamluk Sultanate was a state that controlled Egypt, Palestine, and Syria from 1250 to 1517. [41] The battle ended in a Mongol rout and Kitbuqa's capture and execution. [75] This partially explains his purges of the thousands of mamluks purchased by his predecessors. The desert environment of the Mamluks was given life by the waters of the Nile River, the Mediterranean Sea to the north, and the Red Sea to the Southeast. Although the Crusade was a catastrophe for the Christian forces, initial differing strategies between the reigning Sultan and Mamluks resulted in the execution of many military commanders. The Mamluks quickly rose from a caste of enslaved people to rulers within the Dar Al-Islam. 1. [115] Ethnicity served as a major factor separating the mostly Turkic or Turkicized Mamluk elite from their Arabic-speaking subjects. [19], As the Crusaders advanced, as-Salih died and was succeeded by his son al-Muazzam Turanshah,[21] who was in al-Jazira (Upper Mesopotamia) at the time. [184] To that end, in 1387, Barsbay established direct control over Alexandria, the principal Egyptian commercial port, thereby transferring the tax revenues of the port to the sultan's personal treasury (diwan al-khass) instead of the imperial treasury which was linked with the military's iqta system. The Ayyubids had owed their allegiance to the Abbasid Caliphate, but the latter was destroyed when the Mongols sacked the Abbasid capital Baghdad in 1258 and killed Caliph al-Musta'sim. [123] The Shadhiliyyah lacked an institutional structure and was flexible in its religious thought, allowing it to easily adapt to its local environment. [196] Furthermore, in 1429, he ordered that the spice trade to Europe be conducted through Cairo before goods reached Alexandria, thus attempting to end the direct transportation of spices from the Red Sea to Alexandria. Free and expert-verified textbook solutions. In the 28 October battle of Homs, the Mamluks routed the Ilkhanids and confirmed Mamluk dominance in Syria. 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